Glossary of Terms

Habsburg, Archduke Maximilian von   Proclaimed emperor of Mexico following intervention of France in 1862; ruled until overthrow and execution by liberal revolutionaries under Benito Juárez in 1867. (p. 592)

haciendas   Rural estates in Spanish colonies in New World; produced agricultural products for consumers in America; basis of wealth and power for local aristocracy. (p. 592)

hadiths   Traditions of the prophet Muhammad. (p. 292)

Hagia Sophia   [hä juh sä fEE uh] New church constructed in Constantinople during reign of Justinian. (p. 355)

hajj   Pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca to worship at the Ka'ba. (p. 287)

Hajjaj   [KHaj jäj] Umayyad viceroy for eastern provinces; launched punitive campaign against king of Sind in India that resulted in first Islamic conquest in subcontinent. (p. xxxx)

Hammurabi   The most important ruler of the Babylonian empire; responsible for codification of law. (p. 35)

Han dynasty   Chinese dynasty that succeeded the Qin in 202 b.c.e.; ruled for next 400 years. (p. 114)

Hangzhou   [häng jO] Capital of later Song dynasty; located near East China Sea; permitted overseas trading; population exceeded one million. (p. 439)

Hannibal   Great Carthaginian general during Second Punic War; successfully invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated at Battle of Zama. (p. 154)

Hanseatic League   An organization of cities in northern Germany for the purpose of establishing a commercial alliance. (p.390__)

hapu   Primary social unit of Maori society in New Zealand; divisions of tribes consisting of extended families; land allotted to extended families in common. (p. 247)

Harappa   Along with Mohenjo-daro, major urban complex of the Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern. (p. 53)

Harappan civilization   First civilization of Indian subcontinent; emerged in Indus River valley c. 2500 b.c.e. (p. 56)

Harsha   Descendent of Guptas in India; briefly constructed a loose empire in northern India between 616 and 657 c.e. (p. 319)

Harvey, John   English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, function of heart as pump. (p. 530)

Hausa states   Combined Muslim and pagan traditions; emerged following the demise of Songhay Empire among the Hausa peoples of northern Nigeria, based on cities such as Kano. (p. 340)

Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul   Peruvian politician; founder of APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance) in 1924; aimed at establishing an international party throughout Western Hemisphere. (p. 941)

Heian   [hAY än] Capital city of Japan under the Yamato emperors, later called Kyoto; built in order to escape influence of Buddhist monks; patterned after ancient imperial centers of China; never fully populated. (pp. 242, 451)

Hellenism   Culture derived from the Greek civilization that flourished between 800 and 400 b.c.e. (p. 125)

Hellenistic period   That culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquests; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms. (p. 125)

helots   Conquered indigenous population of Spartan city-state; provided agricultural labor for Spartan landowners; only semi-free; largest population of Spartan city-state. (p. 146)

Henry the Navigator   Portuguese prince responsible for direction of series of expeditions along the African coast in the 15th century; marked beginning of Western European expansion. (p. 545)

Herzl, Theodor   [hûrt suhl, hârt-] Austrian journalist and Zionist; formed World Zionist Organization in 1897; promoted Jewish migration to Palestine and formation of a Jewish state. (p. 973)

Hidalgo, Father Miguel de   Mexican priest who established independence movement among Indians and mestizos in 1810; despite early victories, was captured and executed. (p. 757)

Hideyoshi, Toyotomi   [tO yO tO mAY] General under Nobunaga; succeeded as leading military power in central Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constructed a series of alliances that made him military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598. (p. 684)

hieroglyphs   The form of writing developed in ancient Egypt; more pictorial than Mesopotamian cuneiform. (p. 40)

hijra   [hij ruh] Flight of Muhammad and followers in 622 c.e. from Mecca to Yathrib or Medina; marks first year of Islamic calendar. (p. 278)

Himalayas   Mountain region marking the northern border of the Indian subcontinent; site of the Aryan settlements that formed small kingdoms or warrior republics. (pp. 54, 172)

Hindu Fundamentalism, see Religious Fundamentalism  

Hiroshima   One of two Japanese cities on which the United States dropped atomic bombs in 1945; devastation of these cities caused Japanese surrender without invasion of home islands. (p. 856)

Hispaniola   First island in Caribbean settled by Spaniards; settlement founded by Columbus on second voyage to New World; Spanish base of operations for further discoveries in New World. (p. 583)

Hitler, Adolf   Nazi leader of fascist Germany from 1933 to his suicide in 1945; created a strongly centralized state in Germany; eliminated all rivals; launched Germany on aggressive foreign policy leading to World War II; responsible for attempted genocide of European Jews. (p. 851)

Hittites   An Indo-European people who entered Mesopotamia c. 1750 b.c.e.; destroyed the Babylonian empire; swept away c. 1200 b.c.e. (p. 37)

Hojo   Warrior family closely allied with Minamoto; dominated Kamakura regime and manipulated Minamoto rulers; claimed to rule in name of emperor at Kyoto. (p. 458)

holding ecological adaptation   Human adaptation to an environment in such a way that the original environment is drastically transformed and replaced with a new, human-oriented ecology; typical of sedentary agricultural communities. (p. 84)

Holocaust   Term for Hitler's attempted genocide of European Jews during World War II; resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews. (p. 856)

Holy Alliance   Alliance among Russia, Prussia, and Austria in defense of religion and the established order; formed at Congress of Vienna by most conservative monarchies of Europe. (p. 809)

holy Roman emperors   Emperors in northern Italy and Germany following split of Charlemagne's empire; claimed title of emperor c. 10th century; failed to develop centralized monarchy in Germany. (p. 378)

homelands   Under apartheid, areas in South Africa designated for ethnolinguistic groups within the black African population; such areas tend to be overpopulated and poverty-stricken. (p. 1015)

Homo sapiens   The human species man that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic period. (p. 10)

Hong Kong   British colony on Chinese mainland; major commercial center; agreement reached between Britain and People's Republic of China returned colony to China in 1997. (p. 921)

Hong Xiuquan   [hoong shEE U chY än] Leader of the Taiping rebellion; converted to specifically Chinese form of Christianity; attacked traditional Confucian teachings of Chinese elite. (p. 800)

Hongwu   First Ming emperor in 1368; originally of peasant lineage; original name Zhu Yuanzhang; drove out Mongol influence; restored position of scholar-genty. (p. 674)

Honshu   Largest of the Japanese islands; most heavily populated. (p. 239)

Hopewell culture   Second of the mound-building cultures; lasted from c. 200 to 500 c.e.; more complex than Adena culture. (p. 211)

Horace   Poet who adapted Greek poetic meters to the Latin language; author of lyrical poetry laudatory of the empire; patronized by Augustus. (p. 157)

horse nomads   A form of pastoralism dependent on domesticated horses; common to Indo-European peoples of central Eurasia. (p. 83)

Hsiung-nu   [shEE oong nU] Also known as the Huns; horse nomads responsible for the disruption of Chinese, Gupta, and Roman civilizations. (p. 113)

huacas   Sacred spirits and powers that resided or appeared in caves, mountains, rocks, rivers, and other natural phenomena; typical of Andean societies. (p. 220)

Huancavelica   [wäng kuh vuh lEE kuh] Location of greatest deposit of mercury in South America; aided in American silver production; linked with Potosí. (p. 594)

Huanghe River basin   [hwäng] Also known as Yellow River basin; site of the development of sedentary agriculture in China. (p. 61)

Huanghe River valley   River source in Tibetan plateau to mouth in China sea; site of early Chinese sedentary agricultural communities. (p. 61)

Huari   Along with Tihuanaco, large center for regional chiefdoms between 300 and 900 c.e.; located in southern Peru; featured large ceremonial center supported by extensive irrigated agriculture; established widely diffused religious and artistic symbols spread all over Andean zone. (p. 219)

Huerta, General Victoriano   Attempted to reestablish centralized dictatorship in Mexico following the removal of Madero in 1913; forced from power in 1914 by Villa and Zapata. (p. 935)

Huitzilopochtli   [wEE tsEE lO pOch tlEE] Aztec tribal patron god; central figure of cult of human sacrifice and warfare; identified with old sun god. (p. 403)

Hulegu   Ruler of the Ilkhan khanate; grandson of Chinggis Khan; responsible for capture and destruction of Baghdad. (p. 488)

humanism   Focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages. (p. 524)

human rights   Certain universal rights many argue should be enjoyed by all people because they are justified by a moral standard that stands above the laws of any individual nation. (p. 953)

Humayan   Son and successor of Babur; expelled from India in 1540, but restored Mughal rule by 1556; died shortly thereafter. (p. 628)

Hundred Years' War   Conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453; fought over lands England possessed in France and feudal rights versus the emerging claims of national states. (p. 382)

hunting and gathering   Means of obtaining subsistence by human species prior to the adaptation of sedentary agriculture; normally typical of band social organization. (p. 10)

Hussein, Saddam   Military ruler of Iraq; led Iraq in ten-year war with Iran; attempted to annex Kuwait to Iraq in 1990; defeated by coalition of American, European, and Arab forces in 1991 in Persian Gulf War. (p. 997)

Hyundai   Example of huge industrial groups that wield great power in modern Korea; virtually governed Korea's southeastern coast; vertical economic organization with ships, supertankers, factories, schools, and housing units. (p. 926)

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