The Last Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur

1. Introduction

With the Mongol conquests beginning in the thirteenth century, pastoral nomads enjoyed one last century of political dominance over much of Eurasia. The Mongol empire stretched from China to eastern Europe. Although the Mongols have often been depicted as savage barbarians, they imposed peace on the regions they came to dominate and enabled the establishment of a Eurasian-wide system of trade and cultural exchange.

2. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan



1. Introduction

The traditional Mongol tribal divisions were finally overcome by Chinggis Khan in the thirteenth century. The Mongols were typical pastoral nomads. They depended on herds of goats and sheep for their livelihood, engaged in trade, and were renowned horsemen and women. The basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe composed of clans. These social units were fragile and seldom united for joint action. Courage and the ability to construct tribal alliances were valued traits of Mongol leadership. Only powerful leaders could survive.

2. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan

The Mongols had enjoyed brief periods of dominance in the fourth and tenth centuries. Chinggis Khan's great- grandfather had defeated the Qin dynasty of China in the twelfth century, but his successors did not enjoy his military success. Chinggis Khan's father, a moderately successful Mongol leader, was poisoned by tribal rivals. Left to fend for his family as a minor, Chinggis Khan was deserted by most clan heads. Temporarily captured by his enemies, Chinggis Khan eventually escaped and joined the band of a more powerful leader. As a young man, he was able to achieve a reputation as a successful military leader and attracted clan chiefs to his encampment. In 1206, the Mongol chieftains elected Chinggis Khan khagan, or supreme ruler of the Mongol tribes.

3. Building the Mongol War Machine

Mongol warriors were not only excellent horsemen but also accomplished archers. Mongol armies were entirely cavalry and depended on speed and mobility in making their assaults. Chinggis Khan reorganized the tribal armies of the Mongols into units called tumens containing 10,000 men. Each army was also divided into heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and lightly armored scouts who preceded the main forces. Chinggis Khan introduced severe discipline that mandated death for any soldier who left his unit in battle. Spies and informers produced information that resulted in the creation of accurate maps. The later Mongol forces were equipped with gunpowder and artillery.

4. Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan

Chinggis Khan launched a massive series of assaults in 1207. He defeated the kingdom of Xi Xia in northern China, then attacked the Qin empire of the Jurchen. At first frustrated by the fortified Chinese cities, the Mongols soon developed siege weapons that rendered the towns vulnerable to prolonged assault. Towns that chose to resist conquest were sacked and the townsmen slaughtered. Towns that surrendered immediately were subjected to tribute, but often spared.

5. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China

From his early successes in northern China, Chinggis Khan sent his victorious armies westward to attack the Khwarazm Empire. When the empire of Muhammad Shah II refused to surrender, the Mongols conquered Khwarazm and incorporated the Turkish horsemen of the region into his armies. By 1227, the Mongol empire stretched from northern China to the shores of the Persian Gulf.

6. Life Under the Mongol Imperium

Mongol rule was generally tolerant. Chinggis Khan established the capital of his empire at Karakorum, to which he summoned the intellectuals from his conquered kingdoms. The Mongols offered religious toleration to Confucians, Buddhists, Daoists, and Muslims. The Mongol administration drew from examples in both the Islamic and Chinese world. Chinggis Khan formulated a legal code intended to end tribal and clan divisions among the Mongols. Under the Mongol peace, trade and cultural exchange flourished.

7. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire

In 1226, Chinggis Khan turned once again to the rebellious kingdom of Xi-Xia. Just as his armies proved victorious, the Mongol khagan died. His body was carried to a secret place in the steppes for burial. Chinggis Khan's three sons and a grandson divided the Mongol empire among themselves. Ogedei, the khagan's third son, was named his successor. For nearly a decade, Ogedei continued to direct Mongol campaigns.

3. The Mongol Drive to the West



1. Introduction

The subjugation of the Christian lands of eastern Europe was entrusted to the Golden Horde, while the task of conquering the remainder of the Islamic world fell to the Ilkhan Empire. In 1236, Chinggis Khan's grandson, Batu, led the first Mongol invasion of Russia. The Russian princes, who failed to unite in the face of the nomadic threat, were defeated individually. Just as it appeared all of Russia might be conquered, the Mongols withdrew in 1238. Mongol armies returned in 1240 and completed the reduction of the major Russian cities. Of all the great urban centers of Russia, only Novgorod was spared.

2. Russia in Bondage

The Mongol conquest of Russia reduced the Russian princes to tribute-payers. Payments fell heavily on the peasants, who found themselves reduced to serfdom. Until the mid- nineteenth century, serfdom was typical of Russian agricultural labor. Some Russian cities, such as Moscow, recovered their fortunes by the increased trade the Mongol empire permitted. After 1328, Moscow also profited by serving as the tribute collector for the Mongol overlords. The head of the Orthodox Church in Russia selected Moscow as his capital.

In 1380, the princes of Moscow turned against the Mongols and led an alliance of Russian forces that defeated the Mongols at the battle of Kulikova. The victory broke the hold of the Mongols on Russia, although the nomads continued to make raids into the fifteenth century. The Mongol conquest of Russia ensured the central position of Moscow and the Orthodox Church, led to changes in Russian military organization, and revised the political concepts of Russian rulers. The period of Mongol dominance also cut Russia off from western Europe both politically and culturally.

3. Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe

The first Christian reaction to Mongol invasions was positive. They were convinced that the Mongols were potential allies against the Muslims. The assault on Russia proved that earlier optimism about Mongol intentions was a miscalculation. The successful conquest of Hungary alerted Europe to the potential danger of Mongol assault. Just as it appeared the eastern door to Europe lay open, the Mongol hordes withdrew to Asia to resolve the succession crisis that followed the death of Ogedei.

4. The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartlands

The conquest of the Muslim heartlands of the Middle East fell to Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Khan. In 1258, the Mongols captured and destroyed Baghdad, killing the last of the Abbasid caliphs. The Mongol invasion and the consequent destruction of many cities destroyed the focal points of Islamic culture. Without a central administration, the regional Muslim commanders suffered repeated defeats. Only in 1260 did the Mamluk army of Egypt defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut. Baibars, the Mamluk general, was able to hold off further Mongol invasions. Lack of unity among the Mongol hordes also caused Hulegu to end his assault on Islamic territories.

5. The Mongol Impact on Europe and the Islamic World

The Mongol invasions caused Europeans to alter their military organization and to adopt the use of gunpowder. Mongol conquests facilitated trade across the Asiatic steppes between Europe and Asia. The Mongol armies may also have transmitted the plague infection from Asia to European populations.

4. The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History



1. Introduction

The Mongol conquest of China lasted only a century, but had enduring consequences. Temporarily, the Mongols opened China to external influences from the other civilized regions of Eurasia. The Mongol conquest of China was commanded by Kubilai, a grandson of Chinggis Khan. The southern Song dynasty proved difficult to overcome. The conquest took from 1235 to 1279. Even before the conquest was completed, Kubilai Khan changed the name of his dynasty to Yuan. In order to retain a separate identity, however, the new ruler passed laws forbidding Chinese from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage.Under the Mongol Yuan dynasty, a new social order emerged. At the top of the hierarchy were the Mongols and their allies, then the northern Chinese, then the southern Chinese and other ethnic groups. The central administration was reserved for Mongols and their allies, although the Chinese continued to control the local administrative network.

2. Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Cultures

Mongol women refused to recognize the reduced status accorded females in Confucian society. They refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding, and they retained their rights to property and control within the household. The main influence of Mongol women after the Mongols settled in China was Chabi, the wife of Kubilai Khan. She advised her husband in many diplomatic and political matters.

Ultimately, living in China eroded the power and freedom of Mongol women.

3. Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influences

The Yuan dynasty continued to patronize a full range of scholars and artists from other lands within the Mongol empire. Muslims and Islamic culture were particularly prominent in the Mongol court in China. As elsewhere, the Mongol overlords of China preserved religious toleration and admitted Nestorian and western Christians, as well as Buddhists and Daoists, within their kingdom. It was during the reign of Kubilai Khan that Marco Polo of Italy made his journey to China.

4. Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance

Most of the Chinese scholar-gentry continued to regard the Yuan as barbarians. The Mongol custom of elevating foreigners over Chinese within the central administration further exacerbated the feeling of alienation. The Mongols also elevated the social status of artisans and merchants, who had traditionally ranked below the peasantry in the Confucian social hierarchy. Cities flourished during the Mongol regime in China. Urban culture catered to the Mongols and merchants. Only with respect to his attempts to improve the social and economic condition of the Chinese peasantry did the scholar-gentry approve of Kubilai Khan's social policies.

5. The Fall of the House of Yuan

Eventually the Chinese began to raise rebellions against the Mongol conquerors. Mongol military reputation suffered after defeats at the hands of the Japanese and Vietnamese. Decades in China softened the Mongols. Following the death of Kubilai Khan, no vigorous successors reigned in China. As dissatisfaction with the Yuan dynasty grew, the scholar- gentry called on the people to oust their oppressors.

Popular dissatisfaction spawned secret societies, such as the White Lotus Society, dedicated to the overthrow of the Yuan. When the government was unable to suppress local violence, the Yuan rulers began to flee to central Asia. Order was restored under Ju Yuanzhang, a peasant and the founder of the Ming dynasty.

5. Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur

Mongol invasions were devastating, but the conquests paved the way for the dominance of Moscow in Russia, ended regimes in the Islamic heartlands, created a trading zone that linked all of the civilized regions of Eurasia, and imposed an effective and tolerant government over much of Asia. Following the fragmentation of the Mongol empire, a second nomadic expansion occurred under Timur-i Lang. In the 1360s his armies devastated a wide region of the Middle East, India, and southern Russia. There were few positive results of Timur's short-lived empire. After his death in 1405, his kingdom rapidly disintegrated.